PAPER PHONETICS

 

PHONETICS

“PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS, THE ORGANS OF SPEECH, SUB – DIVISION  OF ORGANS AND ARTICULATIONS”

 

MATERIAL DISCUSSION

 

A.    Production of speech Sounds

How can we produce speech? In this section we will study the production of speech sounds from an articulatory point of view in order to understand better subsequent sections about vowel and consonant sounds. It must be said that speech does not start in the lungs. It starts in the brain and it is, then, studied by Psycholinguistics. After the creation of the message and the lexico-grammatical structure in our mind, we need a representation of the sound sequence and a number of commands which will be executed by our speech organs to produce the utterance. So, we need a phonetic plan of and a motor plan (Belinchón, Igoa y Rivière, 1994: 590) After this metal operations we come to the physical production of sounds. Speech, then, is produced by an air stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. It involves four processes: Initiation, phonation, oro-nasal process and articulation. The initiation process is the moment when the air is expelled from the lungs. In English, speech sounds are the result of “a pulmonic egressive air stream” (Giegerich, 1992) although that is not the case in all languages (ingressive sounds). The phonation process occurs at the larynx. The larynx has two horizontal folds of tissue in the passage of air; they are the vocal folds. The gap between these folds is called the glottis.

The glottis can be closed, as in figure 1. Then, no air can pass. Or it can have a narrow opening which can make the vocal folds vibrate producing the “voiced sounds”. Finally, it can be wide open, as in normal breathing, and, thus, the vibration of the vocal folds is reduced, producing the “voiceless sounds”. After it has gone through the larynx and the pharynx, the air can go into the nasal or the oral cavity. The velum is the part responsible for that selection, as you can see in figure 4. Through the oro-nasal process we can differentiate between the nasal consonants (/m/, /n/, /N/) and other sounds.

Figure 1  Close Glottis               Figure 2 Open Glottis

 

Figure 3 Larinx

 

 

Finally, the articulation process is the most obvious one: it takes place in the mouth and it is the process through which we can differentiate most speech sounds. In the mouth we can distinguish between the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator, and the articulators, which can be active or passive: upper and lower lips, upper and lower teeth, tongue (tip, blade, front, back) and roof of the mouth (alveolar ridge, palate and velum). So, speech sounds are distinguished from one another in terms of the place where and the manner how they are articulated.

 

B.     The organs of speech

The organs of speech are the organs which are involved in the production of speech sounds. The air that we breathe out comes out of the lungs. Before it reaches the outer atmosphere, various organs of our body convert it into speech sounds. These organs called organs of speech. The following are the organs of speech and how they produce sounds.

1.      The Lungs

The airflow is by far the most vital requirement for producing speech sound since all speech sounds are made with some movement of air. The lungs provide the energy source for the airflow. The lungs are the spongy respiratory organs situated inside the rib cage. They expand and contract as we breathe in and out air. The amount of air accumulated inside our lungs controls the pressure of the airflow.

2.      The Larynx & the Vocal Folds

The larynx is colloquially known as the voice box. It is a box-like small structure situated in the front of the throat where there is a protuberance. For this reason, the larynx is popularly called the Adam’s apple. This casing is formed of cartilages and muscles. It protects as well as houses the trachea (also known as windpipe, oesophagus, esophagus) and the vocal folds (formerly they were called vocal cords). The vocal folds are like a pair of lips placed horizontally from front to back. They are joined in the front but can be separated at the back. The opening between them is called the glottis. The glottis is considered to be in open state when the folds are apart, and when the folds are pressed together the glottis is considered to be in close state.

The opening of the vocal folds takes different positions:

·         Wide Apart: When the folds are wide apart they do not vibrate. The sounds produced in such position are called breathed or voiceless sounds. For example: /p/f/θ/s/.

·         Narrow Glottis: If the air is passed through the glottis when it is narrowed then there is an audible friction. Such sounds are also voiceless since the vocal folds do not vibrate. For example, in English /h/ is a voiceless glottal fricative sound.

·         Tightly Closed: The vocal folds can be firmly pressed together so that the air cannot pass between them. Such a position produces a glottal stop / ʔ / (also known as glottal catch, glottal plosive).

·         Touched or Nearly Touched: The major role of the vocal folds is that of a vibrator in the production of speech. The folds vibrate when these two are touching each other or nearly touching. The pressure of the air coming from the lungs makes them vibrate. This vibration of the folds produces a musical note called the voice. And sounds produced in such manner are called voiced sounds. In English all the vowel sounds and the consonants /v/z/m/n/are voiced.

Thus it is clear that the main function of the vocal folds is to convert the air delivered by the lungs into audible sound. The opening and closing process of the vocal folds manipulates the airflow to control the pitch and the tone of speech sounds. As a result, we have different qualities of sounds.

3.      The Articulators

Articulators transform the sound into intelligible speech. They can be either active or passive. They include the pharynx, the teeth, the alveolar ridge behind them, the hard palate, the softer velum behind it, the lips, the tongue, and the nose and its cavity. Traditionally the articulators are studied with the help of a sliced human head figure like the following:

 

 

(i) The Pharynx: The pharynx lies between the mouth and the food passage, that is, just above the larynx. It is just about 7cm long in the case of women and 8cm long in the case of men.

(ii) The Roof of the Mouth: The roof of the mouth is considered as a major speech organ. It is divided into three parts:

a)      The Alveolar Ridge/Teeth Ridge: The alveolar ridge is situated immediately after the upper front teeth. The sounds which are produced touching this convex part are called alveolar sounds. Some alveolar sounds in English include: /t/d/.

b)       The Hard Palate: The hard palate is the concave part of the roof of the mouth. It is situated on the middle part of the roof.

c)      The Velum or Soft Palate: The lower part of the roof of the mouth is called the soft palate. It could be lowered or raised. When it is lowered, the air stream from the lungs has access to the nasal cavity. When it is raised the passage to the nasal cavity is blocked. The sounds which are produced touching this area with the back of the tongue are called velar sounds. For example: /k/g/.

 

(iii) The Lips: The lips also play an important role in the matter of articulation. They can be pressed together or brought into contact with the teeth. The consonant sounds which are articulated by touching two lips each other are called bilabial sounds. For example, /p/ and /b/ are bilabial sounds in English. Whereas, the sounds which are produced with the lip to teeth contact are called bilabial sounds. For example, /p/ and /b/ are bilabial sounds in English. Whereas, the sounds which are produced with the lip to teeth contact are called labiodental sounds. In English, there are two labiodental sounds: /f/ and /v/.

Another important thing about the lips is that they can take different shapes and positions. Therefore, lip-rounding is considered as a major criterion for describing vowel sounds. The lips may have the following positions:

a)      Rounded: When we pronounce a vowel, our lips can be rounded, a position where the corners of the lips are brought towards each other and the lips are pushed forwards. And the resulting vowel from this position is a rounded one. For example, /ə ʊ/.

b)      Spread: The lips can be spread. In this position, the lips are moved away from each other (i.e. when we smile). The vowel that we articulate from this position is an unrounded one. For example, in English, /i: /is a long vowel with slightly spread lips.

c)      Neutral: Again, the lips can be neutral, a position where the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread. And the articulated vowel from this position is referred to as unrounded vowel. For example, in English /ɑ: / is a long vowel with neutral lips.

(iv) The Teeth: The teeth are also very much helpful in producing various speech sounds. The sounds which are made with the tongue touching the teeth are called dental sounds. Some examples of dental sounds in English include: /θ/ð/.

(v) The Tongue: The tongue is divided into four parts:

·         The tip: It is the extreme end of the tongue.

·         The blade: It lies opposite to the alveolar ridge.

·         The front: It lies opposite to the hard palate.

·         The back: It lies opposite to the soft palate or velum.

The tongue is responsible for the production of many speech sounds since it can move very fast to different places and is also capable of assuming different shapes. The shape and the position of the tongue are especially crucial for the production of vowel sounds. Thus when we describe the vowel sounds in the context of the function of the tongue, we generally consider the following criteria:

·         Tongue Height: It is concerned with the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the hard palate. From this perspective, the vowels can be described as close and open. For instance, because of the different distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth, the vowel /i: /has to be described as a relatively close vowel, whereas /æ / has to be described as a relatively open vowel.

·         Tongue Frontness / Backness: It is concerned with the part of the tongue between the front and the back, which is raised high. From this point of view, the vowel sounds can be classified as front vowels and back vowels. By changing the shape of the tongue we can produce vowels in which a different part of the tongue is the highest point. That means a vowel having the back of the tongue as the highest point is a back vowel, whereas the one having the front of the tongue as the highest point is called a front vowel. For example: during the articulation of the vowel / u: / the back of the tongue is raised high, so it’s a back vowel. On the other hand, during the articulation of the vowel / æ / the front of the tongue is raised high, therefore, it’s a front vowel.

(vi) The Jaws: Some phoneticians consider the jaws as articulators since we move the lower jaw a lot at the time of speaking. But it should be noted that the jaws are not articulators in the same way as the others. The main reason is that they are incapable of making contact with other articulators by themselves.

(vii) The Nose and the Nasal Cavity: The nose and its cavity may also be considered as speech organs. The sounds which are produced with the nose are called nasal sounds. Some nasal sounds in English include: /m/n/ŋ/.

 

 

 

C.    Sub-division of Speech Organs

On the basis on their function, our speech organs can be subdivided into:

1.      Initiator

Initiator is the speech organ that sets air into motion for the production of speech sounds. The main initiator is the lungs, because most speech sounds are produced by pulmonic air (lung air). When pulmonic air flows outwards, it is said to be egressive. The vast majority of speech sounds are made using this air.

It is also possible though not usual to speak while the air stream is flowing inwards to the lungs (pulmonic ingressive air). This happens when someone is trying to talk while laughing, crying, or when out of breath.

2.      Phonator

Phonator is the speech organs that are used to produce speech sound called “voice”. The phonator refers to the vocal cords (vocal folds) in the larynx, which are used to produce voice. The organs of speech that are included in the phonator are the larynx and vocal cords.

3.      Articulator

In describing articulation, it is usual to distinguish between those parts of the vocal tract that are unmovable and those that can move under the control of the speaker. Articulators can be divided into two types:

1)   Passive articulators

2)   Active articulators

Passive articulators are organs that do not move during sound articulation such as the upper lip, upper teeth and alveolum. The active articulators move into the passive articulators to produce sounds. The active articulators are the lips and the tongue, and the passive articulators are the locations on the roof of the mouth, for example the alveolar ridge, hard palate, etc.

 

D.    Articulation

As the air stream passes through the vocal tract, it may be modified by the movement of the articulation, that is by the lips and the tongue obstructing its passage through the vocal tract to varying degrees. This process is called articulation. Articulation is the act of moving two articulators toward each other for the obstruction of the out-going air.

·                     Point or place of articulation

The two articulators may be moved in such a way that they are touching or almost touching each other at a certain point which is called point (place) of articulation.

The articulatory process usually subdivided based on where in the vocal tract obstruction of the air flow occurs. It refers to place/point of articulation. The number of places of articulation may vary from one language to another. But in English, it can be divided into seven groups, namely: bilabial, labiodental, dental/interdental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal/pharyngeal.

1)      Bilabial

Bilabial sounds are made with both lips. There are five such sounds possible in English: [p] pat, [b] bat, [m] mat, [w] with, and [wh] where (present only in some dialects). We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.

2)      Labiodental

Labiodental are made with the lower lip against the upper front teeth. English has two labiodentals [f] as in fat and [v] as in vat. The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator.

3)      Dental/Interdental

Interdentals are made with the tip of the tongue between front teeth. There are two interdental sounds in English: [θ] thigh and [ð] they

4)      Alveolar

Just behind your upper front teeth there is a small ridge called the alveolar ridge. English makes seven sounds at or near this ridge: [t] tab, [d] dab, [s] sip, [z] zip, [n] noose, [l] loose and [r] red.

5)      Palatal

If you let your finger glide back along the roof of your mouth you will note that the anterior portion is hard while the posterior portion is soft. Sounds made near the hard part of the roof of the mouth are said to be palatal. English makes five sounds in the palatal region: [Σ] leash, [Ζ] measure, [±] church, [→] judge and [j] yes.

6)      Velar

The soft part of the roof of the mouth behind the hard palate is called the vellum. Sounds made near the velum are said to be velar. There are three velar sounds in English: [k] kill, [g] gill, and [ŋ] sing.

7)      Glottal/Pharyngeal

The space between the vocal folds is the glottis. English has two sounds made at the glottis. The first is easy to hear: [h] as in high and history. The second is called a glottal stop and it is written phonetically as [ʔ] (a question mark without the dot). This sound occurs before each vowel sound in uh-oh.

·                     Manner of articulation

So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. It refers to manner of articulation. Based on the manner of articulation, it may be grouped into six groups, namely: stops, fricative, affricates, nasals, liquid, and glides.

1)      Stops

Stops are made by totally obstructing the airstream. Notice that when you say [p] and [b] your lips are closed together for a moment, stopping the air flow. [p] and [b] are bilabial stops. [b] is voiced bilabial stop. [t], [d], [k], and [g] are also stops.

2)      Fricatives

Fricatives are made by forming a nearly complete stoppage of the airstream. The opening through which the air escapes is so small that friction is produced (much as air escaping from a punctured tire makes a ‘hissing’ noise) [š] is made by almost stopping the air with the tongue near the roof of the mouth. It is a voiceless palatal fricative. [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [Σ], [Ζ] are also fricatives.

3)      Affricates

 The affricates are special group of sounds that are formed by combining a stop and a fricative. In English, only one pair of sounds occurs in this category, [±] as in chain and rich and [→] as in Jane and ridge. Notice that in pronouncing [±], one seems to pronounce [t] following by [Σ]. Similarly, [→] is much like a phonetic compound, consisting of [d] following by [Ζ].

4)      Nasals

 In English, the three nasals, [m, n, Ν], are made with the lips and the tongue in the same respective position as they are for [p, t, k]; however, air pressure does not build up as it does in the stops. Instead, the uvula (the flap that controls the opening to the nasal passage) is open, allowing the air to flow through the nose. In English, the nasals are always voiced. Whereas [m] and [n] may occur at the beginning as well as at the end of a syllable in English, as in mom and nun, [Ν] occurs only at the end of syllable, as in sing.

5)      Liquid

 The consonants [l] and [r], as heard in lilt and roar, are called liquid. Both sounds are normally voiced. An [l] sound is formed by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge and allowing air to escape to each side. The [r] sound in English is formed by curling the tip of the tongue up behind the alveolar ridge and flipping it forward and upward without actually touching the alveolar ridge.

6)      Glides

 Glides are made with only a slight closure of the articulators. In fact, if the vocal tract were any more open you would produce a vowel sound. [w] is made by rising the back of the tongue toward the velum while rounding your lips at the same time; it is thus classified as a voiced bilabial glide. (Notice the similarity in the way you articulate [w] in the woo and then [u] vowel in this word; the only change is that you open your lips a little more for [u]). The [y] glide, much like the [w], is formed with the tongue and lips in the same position as they are when making the sound ‘ee’ (as in bee).

 Both [w] and [y] always appear either before or after a vowel in English. In both cases, the sound ‘glide’ rapidly to or from the articulatory position for that vowel. Since [w] and [j] process certain vowel-like properties--for example lack a definite constriction of the oral cavity--they are not true consonants and are often called semi vowels.

 

 

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